The Battle Of Gettysburg And Civil War - 1375 Words

The Battle of Gettysburg occurred July 1-3, 1863 in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania and was one of the most significant battles of the American Civil War. Union forces of the North, commanded by Major General George G. Meade met and fought the Confederate forces of the South, commanded by General Robert E. Lee. Many historians believe the battle was a large turning point in the Civil War in favor of the Union (Woodworth, 2008). However, this is disputable. The battle was also significant because it was the bloodiest battle of the war, which resulted in the death of 51,112 Soldiers (The Battle of Gettysburg, The American Civil War, Statistics, n.d.). The Union forces defeated the Confederacy at Gettysburg resulting in the Confederate force’s retreat back to Virginia. Setting the Stage Major General George G. Meade commanded the Union forces, organized under the Army of the Potomac, during the Battle of Gettysburg. Meade was born in Cà ¡diz, Spain to a U.S. naval agent on December 31, 1815. Meade graduated from West Point in 1835 and served briefly in the Seminole War. In 1836, he resigned from the Army and became a civil engineer. In 1842, Meade joined the Army again. He served as a Topographical Engineer in the Mexican American War, and was a veteran of multiple Civil War battles prior to the Battle of Gettysburg. Meade received the position as Commander of the Army of the Potomac only three days prior to the Battle of Gettysburg, following the resignation ofShow MoreRelatedThe Battle Of Gettysburg And The Civil War Essay1448 Words   |  6 PagesOn July 1, 1863, the bloodiest, most gruesome war in American History began. The Battle of Gettysburg was fought in the small town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The Union Army under the command of General George G . Meade faced the Confederate Army led by General Robert E. Lee. They clashed for a long, tragic, three days, but at a costly expense of human life. The American Civil War was one of the most significant battles that the United States has ever been engaged in. On the lines, there were brothersRead MoreThe Battle Of Gettysburg And The Civil War Essay1434 Words   |  6 Pagessmall town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was awoken to the beginning of what was to be the turning point of the Civil War for the Union. It began as a small skirmish, but by its end it involved so many Americans to which would become one of the bloodiest battles ever taken place on Unites States soil. The Battle of Gettysburg was not only a turning point in the war. From July 1st to July 3rd, 1863, the most famous and most important Civil War Battle took place in the small town of Gettysburg, PennsylvaniaRead MoreThe Battle Of Gettysburg And The Civil War970 Words   |  4 Pagesago, our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal†. One of the most well-known and 16th president of the United States stated these words at the Battle of Gettysburg. A two-minute speech that made such an emotional and passionate impact on the men then and future. He created a dramatic tone to empower, motivate, and engage in the new found nation where men were created equal. A purpose of his speech wasRead MoreBattle Of Gettysburg : Gettysburg Of The American Civil War1465 Words   |  6 PagesShaJuan Ervin Dr.Seamen MIS 303-01 2/24/16 Battle of Gettysburg Day 3 The Battle of Gettysburg is widely known as the largest battle of the American Civil War. This crucial battle occurred over three days, July 1st to July 3, 1863 surrounding the town of Gettysburg. In this battle, General Robert E. Lee tactfully awaited the forces of General Meade’s Union. On July 1st the Confederates were exploited by the Union resulting in a loss. The following day, the Confederates gained ground by conductingRead MoreThe American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg985 Words   |  4 PagesGettysburg was fought during the Civil War between the Union Army of the Potomac led by General Meade, and the Confederate Army commanded by General R.E. Lee. The battle only was waged over the course of three days, but it would prove to be the most costly of the entire Civil War. In this paper, we will show how the Confederacy failed to identify certain principles of war, which lead them to incorrectly conduct a center of gravity and critical vulnerability analysis on t he Union. Because of thisRead MoreThe Battle Of Gettysburg And American Civil War924 Words   |  4 PagesThe Battle of Gettysburg was fought over the first three days in July 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. Confederate General Robert E. Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia, while Union Major General George Gordon Meade commanded the Army of the Potomac. The Battle of Gettysburg involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war s turning point. With his army in highRead MoreThe Battle Of Gettysburg During The Civil War847 Words   |  4 Pagesin which Family members fought on opposing sides of the war, for example: the Culp Family from Pennsylvania, Crittenden Family from Kentucky. Even President Lincoln’s wife had members of her family that fought on opposing sides. This is the perfect example of people fighting for their own cause not just because there was a line drawn on a map. Before the Battle of Gettysburg even started many soldiers had fought side by side in multiple battles as US Soldiers, where many friendships were born. OnceRead MoreThe Battle Of Gettysburg And The American Civil War1993 Words   |  8 Pagesagree that the Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point in the American Civil War. Some even go as far to as to call it the â€Å"high water mark† of the Confederate States. What is known is that it represented the last time a coherent Confederate Army threatened northern soil. In fact, from Gettysburg forward, the Confederation of Southern States would be fighting a defensive/fighting retreat. Gettysburg was one of the bloodiest battles of the war, but there were many bloody battles during the AmericanRead More The Battle of Gettysburg as the Turning Point of the Civil War1603 Words   |  7 Pages  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gettysburg was the turning point of the American Civil War. This is the most famous and important Civil War Battle that occurred over three hot summer days, July 3, 1863, around the small market town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. More importantly Gettysburg was the clash between the two major American Cultures of their time: the North and the South. The causes of the Civil War, and the Battle of Gettysburg, one must understand the differences between these two cultures. The Confederacy had anRead MoreThe Battle Of Gettysburg As A Turning Point Of Civil War1048 Words   |  5 PagesResearch question: Why was the Battle of Gettysburg considered a tur ning point of Civil War and what are the economics impacts of the event during the time? I. Introduction This purpose of this paper is to show why the Battle of Gettysburg was considered a turning point in Civil War and what are the economics influences of the outcome during the time of the event. The influences on both North and South’s markets are studied and will be shown whether any changes were made during the turning point

Benefits And Benefits Of Employee Benefits - 1957 Words

Employee benefits are an important component of compensation for many US employees. Approximately 30% of worker compensation comes in the form of fringe benefits, and benefits have been linked to increased productivity and worker satisfaction, and reduced absenteeism (Artz, 2010). While health and life insurance are common benefits provided to employees, firms also offer EAP programs, child care, flexible work hours, work-at-home programs, long-term disability insurance, and health and wellness programs including well-baby programs, gym memberships, stress reduction programs, on-site flu vaccines, and weight management programs. Relatively little is known about how corporations make decisions about the benefits they offer their†¦show more content†¦Organizational climates which promote risk taking have been theorized to impact corporate innovation independently (Caruana, Ewing, Ramaseshan, 2002) or in combination with other organizational and environmental factors (Nystrom, Ramamurthy, Wilson, 2002). As an independent predictor, risk taking is viewed as a necessary prerequisite for adopting new ideas whose outcomes cannot be guaranteed (Albrecht Hall, 1991). A meta-analysis of 24 organizational studies demonstrated that organizational support for risk taking demonstrated a 0.78 effect size on innovation (Hunter, Bedell, Mumford, 2007). Pro-innovation attitudes by managers predict innovation adoption in both the public and private sector (Moon and Bretschneider 2002; Thong and Yap 1995). As a mediator, organizational support for risk taking may explain the relationship of organizational fina ncial health (Kearney, Feldman, Scavo, 2000; Walker Boyne, 2006) and size (Damanpur 2010; Walker 2008). To complement our previous research which identified organizational risk-taking as a significant predictor of innovative health benefit decision-making (Rost, 2014), the research team conducted an exploratory analysis of factors associated with organizational risk-taking in human resource departments to inform future research on employee benefit decision-making. Methodology Data The data were

Small-Scale Fish Farming in Bangladesh Free Essays

string(84) " stocked with fingerlings or fry and the fish can be harvested later on using nets\." Small-scale fish farming in Bangladesh Introduction For many people in Bangladesh small-scale fish farming is an important opportunity to generate income and is a significant nutritional source providing protein-rich food all year round. It comprises of a range of options that can be adapted to suit the needs and capacity of people living in rural Bangladesh. The two approaches commonly implemented on a small scale are: †¢ Local pond fish farming Open water fish farming in lakes, rivers, dams and reservoirs The benefit to low-income farmers is that they are able to invest in fish cultivation when there is sufficient income, which will then be able to generate additional income and food when other sources of income are limited. We will write a custom essay sample on Small-Scale Fish Farming in Bangladesh or any similar topic only for you Order Now Much of Bangladesh is flooded annually during the monsoon season as water flows into the country through the Ganga (Ganges), Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. This provides an extensive range of habitats for wild and cultivated fish species. Fish catches are highest after the monsoon rains when supplies of other foods, such as rice, are low. With so much water, fishing plays a vital role in the economy of rural villages. Fish farming options Capital intensive One of the main trends in fish culture over recent years has been towards capital-intensive, high-input high-yield systems, which can dramatically improve the rate of production if operated in ideal conditions. The development of practical hatching techniques has vastly improved fish cultivation and allowed careful breeding and selection of desired species to take place. Although these techniques were introduced to Bangladesh some years ago, it has taken time for them to become established. Commercially produced fish have become a significant proportion of the total fish supply. But intensive cultivation methods increase the cost of fish production beyond the reach of poorer farmers. Consequently, alternative low-cost approaches have been promoted by NGOs working in the country. Fish farming for the poor An enormous variety of water bodies, including rivers, irrigation canals, flood plains, beels (large depressions), ox bow lakes and ponds are dispersed throughout Bangladesh offering considerable potential for fish cultivation, but a general lack of capital, access to resources and knowledge means that many farmers are unable to provide all the commercial inputs required for intensive production methods. An alternative low-cost approach is more appropriate for many people, relying on existing water bodies and natural vegetation and household waste, supplemented with animal protein in the form of snails and homemade supplements for fish feed. Many NGOs are adopting strategies to minimise the inherent riskiness of fish culture by undertaking research into low-input systems, low-cost technology, fast growing species and alternative management practices. Pond culture Site selection is an important factor in the success of a fish farm but the ideal site is usually not available to poorer families. Site location will be dependent on a number of factors: †¢ The fish species being raised. †¢ Soil quality, which affects water quality and productivity. †¢ An adequate supply of water. †¢ Land ownership. Marketplace and market conditions. †¢ Fish food and other inputs available to the farmer. †¢ Groups adjacent to water. †¢ More than 1 metre water retention capacity for at least 6 months of the year. †¢ Pollution free. Ideally, the fishpond should be 0. 5 to 1. 0 metres at the shallow end and sloping to 1. 5 to 2 . 0 metres at the drain end. Drain vales, baffle boards or tilt-over standpipes s hould be incorporated into the design. It should be possible to drain the pond within three days. The edges of the pond should have a slope of 2:1 or 3:1 on all sides. If possible the pond should be located to take advantage of the effect of the wind on the surface of the pond to mix the water; although locations that are too windy can cause erosion of dykes. If the site is very windy the long side of the pond should be at right angles to the prevailing wind. Hedges and trees can be used to protect the pond. In practice, existing ponds and pools are abundant in Bangladesh, often located near to farmers’ homes. Small-scale fish cultivation is mainly a secondary occupation for farmers. These ponds tend to be small (less than 0. 5 acres) and do not have any water drain facility. They are commonly referred to as fishponds but are in fact â€Å"borrow pits†, where earth has been removed for building. Fish breading is just one of the activities that the ponds are used for. Other uses may include domestic water use, washing, irrigation or duck keeping. Ponds are occasionally integrated into paddy fields as additional ditches. Consequently, t he ponds have many limitations for producing fish. In managing the ponds there are many potential problems to be considered, including: †¢ Broken pond banks; check the pond walls on a regular basis. An irregular water supply, too much water in the monsoon season and too little in the summer. †¢ Predators; check the pond for signs of snake and rat holes. The Boal fish is a particular menace that eats smaller fish. †¢ Grazing animals can damage the pond banks and should be kept out of the way. †¢ Silting or a build up of organic matter; check the bottom of the pond and scoop silt out when required. Mud on the bottom of the ponds can be agitated with a rope to release harmful gasses. †¢ Leakage; check the inlet and outlet on a regular basis. Fish diseases; check the fish on a regular basis. †¢ Poor water quality; lime can be added to improve the water quality. Open water fish farming Open water fish farming is particularly suited to Bangladesh with its man y water sources. Cages or pens are used to separate an area of larger water bodies for fish cultivation. The selected water source should be of good quality with low turbidity. Dams and reservoirs primarily exist to store water but as a secondary function these bodies of water can be stocked with fingerlings or fry and the fish can be harvested later on using nets. You read "Small-Scale Fish Farming in Bangladesh" in category "Essay examples" In river locations a slow current is necessary and there should be little disturbance from water traffic. The disadvantages are: †¢ Fish farmers have little control of the water, as they do not own the dam or reservoir. †¢ Water cannot be drained, as the main function of the resource is to provide water. †¢ There are likely to be more predators of the fish in the water. †¢ It is not possible to feed or fertilize the water, as occurs in more intensive fish farming, so there is a reliance on naturally occurring fish food. There is a potential risk from disease but stock held in small-scale cages scattered around villages will probably be less vulnerable than stock held in more concentrated and centralized commercial systems. †¢ The risk from theft and vandalism is a serious problem in some places. This is especially real for the poorest people who are perceived as easy victims. †¢ A significant expansion of cage culture activities in some villages could le ad to local depletion of snail or other foods, to the detriment of ducks and other domestic and wild animals. †¢ Multiple ownership of ponds can be a major drawback to the effective use of such resources. Consensus over access to the water for the poor has to be developed. Figure 2: Bilkish Begum and Hamida Begum working with fish cages (Photo credit: Practical Action / Zul) Fish cages Cages are used as a form of farming in their own right within flowing or large bodies of water and can also be used in small pond fish culture to protect fingerlings in the initial stages of development. Small cages with a capacity of one cubic metre are suitable for fingerling protection. The cage can hold up to 300 fish at a time. People grow fish in their local ponds using a simple fish cage known locally as a â€Å"hapa†. A few young fish are put into each â€Å"hapa†, which acts as their home, floating just below the surface of the pond. Cage construction Cages can be made using a few cheap materials. Bamboo poles form an outer frame that is covered in netting; inside is a â€Å"nursery† section for the younger, more delicate fish; and floats are added at the corners. A cage is a very simple means of restraining fish in one place and it can be easily made using local materials. Cage design must incorporate certain physical properties, including the ability to hold fish securely but also to be within the financial means of the cage operators. The cages presently used are small in size, measuring between 1 and 2m3, inexpensive and simple to construct. Farmers use both fixed and floating cages. In general, fixed cages are installed in water where the depth is relatively low and bamboo poles can be fixed into the riverbed or substrate. Floating cages do not have this limitation and can be used in deep water. Floating cages tend to be easier to manage but when selecting the type and design the following points should be considered: †¢ Ability †¢ Input availability †¢ Natural disaster †¢ Type of water body Water depth †¢ Water current †¢ Water retention period over one year †¢ Social problem †¢ Cage management Fixed cages Fixed cages are very easy to construct and only require a small amount of capital investment. The materials needed to make fixed cages are netting with an 8mm mesh size, bamboo, rope, twine and sinker. Routine management is difficult for these cages and storms, strong c urrents, tidal surges and flooding may cause damage if precautionary measures are not taken. Fixed cages are difficult to move from one place to another during water fluctuation. A top cover is usually provided on cages to reduce the risk of fish escaping, especially in areas prone to flash floods where water levels rise very quickly. A small opening is kept at one edge or in the middle of the top covering for feeding purposes. A feeding platform made of fine mesh is placed on the bottom of each cage to minimise food loss. To fix the cage, four bamboo poles are fixed in the substrate and the four top and bottom corners of the cage are tied to the bamboo poles with nylon rope, allowing the cage netting to stretch. To minimise installation cost and to reduce daily management labour, cages are sometimes fixed in rows with a narrow space between the adjacent cages. Floating cages The size of the cage is usually 1m3. A top net is always used to minimise escapees because the cage is only a few centimetres above the water surface. The top of the cage is on hinges that can be opened to allow feeding, the checking of fish, the removal of waste and harvesting. A layer of fine mesh net is placed along the bottom of the cage and 10 centimetres up each side which reduces food loss. However, where water has a high turbidity, the use of fine mesh is not recommended as it clogs up the mesh and causes structural stress on the cage frame. In these areas, feeding trays should be used instead of fine mesh. Buoyancy is achieved by using four plastic floats (buoys) which are tied to the four horizontal frames, approximately 10 centimetres from the top of the cage. Bamboo frame cage To make a 1m3 bamboo cage, twelve one metre long bamboo sticks (about 2cm in diameter) are required and fixed into the holes of the angles, one angle for each corner, giving a box shape. Advantages and disadvantages of fixed and floating cages | |Fixed cages |Floating cages | |Advantages | |Cost per unit is small |Water volume remains constant even with a fluctuation in the water | |Not damaged by storms |level | |Easy age management |Cage can be installed in deep water | |Cage bags spread properly in the water |Floating cage with box type frame gives adequate space inside | |Easy to const ruct | |In tidal water bodies the effective cage depth is greater | |Disadvantages | |Water depth inside cage varies with the fluctuation of the water |Cost per unit is higher than fixed cages | |level |Algae deposits on cage net affect the water exchange | |Vulnerable to tidal surge and storm |Cage management i. e. cleaning, moving and sampling are not easy | |Cage cannot be installed in all types of water bodies |Due to water flow sometimes the cage bag does not spread properly | |Prone to crab cutting |Easy to steal fish by lifting the cage | |Poorer fish growth and higher mortality rate |During flooding may wash away | Cage management Care of cages – cleaning of aquatic weeds nearby, removal of water hyacinth, cleaning of waste feeds from cages, cleaning of deposited silts from cage, removal of dead fishes, checking cage frames, floats, ties, anchors, feeding trays etc. , cage shifting, considering the water level, checking water pollution and guarding. Care of net – Algae attachment should be cleaned at regular basis to ensure water exchange, net holes must be checked properly and need quick repairing when necessary. Care of fish – profitability depends on proper attention to the fish growth, regular, adequate and quality feeding is important. Fish health and disease should be monitored during feeding and sampling. The fish must be fed daily using aquatic weed or a mixture of rice bran, oil cakes, kitchen waste, chopped snails or cow dung. Minimising risk of cage culture †¢ Appropriate cage design can help minimise failure. †¢ The use of more than one cage per household greatly reduces the risk of an individual losing all fish. †¢ Placing many cages together in clusters also reduces the risk of poaching. †¢ Individual farmers can form groups that can guard the fish and therefore considerably reduce potential poaching threats. Fish types Fish is an important part of the diet for the people in Bangladesh providing protein calcium, fatty acids and vitamins. Traditionally, a variety of local species were used in ponds, mainly carp, caught from the wild as spawn (fertilised eggs or small fish). One of the main drawbacks of this source of supply is that along with the desired fish species come many undesirable ones Most of the species currently used in the cages in Bangladesh are exotics. However, for decades these fish have bred naturally and distributed themselves throughout the flood plains and the delta. Common fish types The selection a suitable fish species will depend on various biological and economic factors, such as; †¢ Market price †¢ Growth rate †¢ Ability to reproduce simple culture of young fish Match of fish and available fish feed †¢ Water temperature is an important criteria in assessing which fish species is suitable. The main types of cultivated fish are Carp, Tilapia and Catfish. Other fish suitable to cultivation are eel, tawes, mullet, snakeskin, and rohu. Some fish are more suitable to pond condit ions than others, some fish will not adapt the confined conditions while others such as the indigenous Koi (Anabas testidunous) have been found to thrive in cages. Small indigenous species In addition to the main cultivated species there are many indigenous breeds of fish that play an important role in the nutrition of the population. These fish are classed as small indigenous species although not all fish within this classification are particularly small. Of the 260 species of fresh water fish found locally, over 140 species are classified as Small Indigenous Species (SIS) and account for over 80% of the total catch, consumed by the poorer section, as preferred species. The term SIS would seem to be a recent re interpretation of the Bangla word chotmach (literally small fish) as opposed to Boromach (literally large fish). Common fish within the small indigenous species category include: Figure 3: Bilkish with prepared food for her fish (Photo credit: Practical Action / Zul) †¢ Small catfish †¢ Knifefishes Snakeheads †¢ Needlefishes †¢ Minnows, Rasboras, and bards †¢ Loaches †¢ Anchovies and sardines †¢ Spiny eels †¢ Climbing perch †¢ Gobies †¢ Mud Perches †¢ Glassfishes †¢ Fresh water prawns Small, low-value fish are particularly important for the extrem ely poor after the rice harvest when the demand for their labour declines. Feeding the fish With the non-intensive approach it is possible to feed fish on nothing more than scraps and waste, duck weed, oil cake, kitchen waste, rice bran and snails which will provide all the nutrition required. Some low-cost feeds are bought in by the households, typically rice bran and oilcake, but these costs are minimal. Occasionally, the diet may be supplemented with commercially available compound feeds. In most cases a mixture of diets is offered, according to their availability and needs of the fish. Fish harvesting and marketing Growth is rapid in the warm climate of Bangladesh and the fish attain marketable size within 3-9 months, providing farmers with a rapid return on their investment and labour. Fingerling production culture cycle is between 1 and 2 months. Cage nursery producers can sell fingerlings to the pond farmers and ox-bow lake operators. Fish for food culture cycle is between 4 and 6 months. Fish food producers consume the cage fish as well as selling them in the market. Figure 4: A group of landless women discussing finances in Madaripur (Photo credit: Practical Action / Neil Cooper) Profitability depends on many factors including the type of water body and culture, cage construction materials, the choice of fish species, fingerling size and price, stocking density, feed price, availability of protein rich feed, culture duration, cage management, harvesting and marketing. Another concern relates to economies of scale. Almost all enterprises are subject to economies of scale, and cage culture is no exception. The labour of looking after one small cage is far greater per kilogram of product than that for looking after a large one. The cost of the cage per kilogram of production will also be higher for a small cage versus a large cage. However, co-operative use of labour can be used to realise economies of scale in relation to labour, and this is already done in many villages. The third concern, related to the second, is comparative advantage. A significant proportion of the fish is intended to be sold for cash rather than consumed by the farmer and his family. In the medium term, an important question is whether small-scale producers in villages are well placed to compete – either with larger commercial producers, or producers from elsewhere. If they are not, and if competition increases, then prices – and returns – will steadily decline. In practice there is strong local demand for fish throughout the country, and small-scale producers are well placed to serve widely-dispersed rural markets. Secondly, the use of surplus off-season and/or family labour is itself a comparative advantage. Thirdly, in those systems which use local food resources, such as natural foods and kitchen wastes, feed costs are relatively low compared with those for commercial producers. Small-scale fish producers should therefore be able to survive competition in much the same way as village-scale poultry producers have survived, and even to some extent benefit from the increasing number of intensive poultry operations. References and further reading †¢ Small-scale Freshwater Fish Farming by van Ear et al. Agromisa 1996 †¢ Cage and Pen Fish Farming: Carrying Capacity Models and Environmental Impact FAO Fisheries Technicla Paper 225, 1984 †¢ Food, Livelihoods and Freshwater Ecology: The Significance of Small Indigenous Fish Species, ITDG Bangladesh, 1999 For further information, please contact: Practical Action The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development Bourton-on-Dunsmore Warwickshire CV23 9QZ United Kingdom Tel: + 44 (0)1926 634400 Fax: + 44 (0)1926 634401 E-mail infoserv@proacticalaction. org. uk Website: www. practicalaction. org Practical Action Bangladesh G. P. O. Box 3881 Dhaka 1000 Bangladesh Tel: + 880 – (0)2 – 8111934, 9110060, 9123671 Fax: + 880 – (0)2 – 8113134 E-mail: bangladesh@practicalaction. org. bd How to cite Small-Scale Fish Farming in Bangladesh, Essay examples

Heliocentrism The Vatican Menace Essay Example For Students

Heliocentrism: The Vatican Menace Essay Heliocentrism: The Vatican MenaceThe impact of the Heliocentric TheoryHeliocentric: Relating to the sun as a center; appearing as if seen from the suns center.(Webster,447) The heliocentric theory was first introduced to the world by a Polish astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus published his views on the heliocentric theory in his book Commentariolus, in 1514, which sparked the time period now known as the Copernican Revolution. Heliocentrism was proven true by the discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, and Newton; through their efforts to prove the validity of the heliocentric theory people began to find truth in science through experimentation rather than religion with no proof. Many scientists went through great ordeals for their scientific beliefs, thus making the heliocentric theory the most electrifying idea in human history. Ancient peoples believed in Gods and deities for causes to nature and the unexplained. Once the fourth century BC rolled around, people began to see astronomical phenomena as natural compound products of simple operations repeated in perpetuity rather than the actions of Gods. (Morphet, p.6) Greeks did not revere celestial bodies very strongly in their religion, despite having deities for the Sun and Moon. (North, p.78) Different peoples beliefs varied greatly in ancient times. Different countries progressed in thought at different speeds. During the Renaissance, many began to toss aside medieval preoccupations with supernatural forces and turned to secular concerns like fame. (Yamasaki, p.50) With the Age of Discovery, people began to think for themselves and ponder truths through philosophy, science, astronomy, astrology, etc. Philosophers minds began to turn, the human mind was finally awake. Plato, a famous Greek philosopher, believed stars were Gods that the creator gave life to. This view was very influential and proved to be sort of a religion for intellectual idealists, no longer for the populace. At the time, the thought of heavenly bodies being divine, and stars being eternal objects in unchanging motion were common knowledge. Thinking otherwise was considered Atheistic. (North, p.78) Fellow famous Renaissance man, and Platos pupil, Aristotle, was also a very important figure. Born in Stagira in 384, Aristotle is regarded as the most influential ancient philosopher of the sciences. Aristotle refined Callippus geometrical and spherical concepts, and developed the geocentric theory, which was believed for two thousand years. (North, p.80) Aristotle believed that the sphere is the most perfect figure because when rotated to any diameter it occupies the same space; and that circular motions are a sign of perfection, which is why Heaven is considered divine. The spheric al nature of the Earth and Universe according to Aristotle, is the natural movement of Earthly matter from all places downwards, to a center, around which a sphere of matter will build up. Only circular motion is capable of endless repetition without a reversal of direction, and rotary motion is prior to linear because what is external, or at least could have always existed, is prior, or at least potentially prior, to what is not. In Aristotles book De Caelo (On the Heavens), he speaks of the celestial sphere, the Earths center being the same shape, and dismissing the idea of the Earth rotating at the center of the universe. He also dismisses the idea of an orbital motion of the Earth. (North, p.81)Contradicting Aristotle, Heracleides, an astronomer, believed in the rotation of the Earth on its axis and is known to be the earliest astronomer to stand by it. He was thought to have taken the first step in Copernicanism. It is believed in the years to follow that Copernicus was said to have mentioned Heracleides name in this connection. (North, p.85)Aristarchus of Samos was the first astronomer to clearly put forth a true sun-centered theory, learned from Archimedes. (North, p.85) Aristarchus hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun are stationary, that the Earth is carried in a circular orbit around the Sun, which lies in the middle of its orbit, and that the spheres of fixed stars, having the same center as the Sun, is so great in extent that the circle on which the Earth is supposedly carried is in the same ratio to the distance of the sphere has to its surface. (North, p.85-6) If Aristarchus did believe in heliocentrism, he still could not prove the differences in the Earths motion and seasons, which explains its failure to be accepted. (North, p.86-7)Although scientists such as Eudoxus, Callippus, and Aristotle all came up with Earth-centered systems based by providing a center for all motions, Ptolemy was triumphant for he was able to explain sphere sizes and achieved a single system, which was not done by the others. When Ptolemy achieved a single system, the sizes of the shells accommodating maximum and minimum planetary distances were settled on the principle that there must be no void, no wasted space, between them. (North, p.285) His misconception was he believed that if the Earth was not fixed entirely, it would shatter, even though Copernicus reveals that planets distanc es from Earth and motions vary, and that the Earth endlessly repeats in motion. (North, p.286) Despite the Catholic Church adopting Ptolemys and Aristotles beliefs of geocentrism, those theories did not correspond to the astronomical observations of the time. (Yamasaki, p.50) The Copernican Revolution began during the European Renaissance and was named after Nicolaus Copernicus. (Morphet, p.4) this period saw elements of a modern scientific outlook extend its boundaries into areas of enquiry where observation and measurement had hitherto been less important than philosophical speculation and a priori reasoning. (Morphet, p.4-5) although the Copernican heliocentric theory dealt directly with the structure of the solar system, its indirect consequences embraced the whole fabric of thought, inaugurating a breakthrough in peoples outlook on the world. Copernicus liberated the human mind, which had been fettered up to his day by traditional conventions, and he opposed the basing of scien ce solely on sensory experiences. Taking a stand against the entire world of that time and against the supreme authority that he recognized?the church and the Holy Scripture, against the views consolidated and sanctified by the knowledge of scholars of many previous centuries?he instilled into the minds of men boldness in thinking, but he also taught them humility in the quest for truth. Copernicus science of the stars is also a science of man and his place on an Earth which is spinning through the universe. (Adamczewski, p. 156-7)Copernicus published the first outline on heliocentrism in his book Commentary on the Hypothesis of the Movement of Celestial Orbs, in 1514. It was the first of its kind, without all of the mathematics. (Adamczewski, p.114) The Copernican theory explained the Earth-Sun line and gave a more plausible reason as to why the Suns role is important in the motions of the Moon and planets in the solar system when compared to Ptolemys. By introducing the Sun into t he theory of motion of every planet, Copernicus made it possible to represent all in a single system. (North, p.285) The heliocentric system presented the planets positions more logically, going around or below the Sun. It also explained the relative sizes of the planets retrograde arcs and why outer-stellar planets are brightest in opposition. (North, p.287) Societys reaction to the heliocentric system was not a favorable one. Many people thought Who would dare to place Copernicus authority higher than the Holy Scripture? (Adamczewski, p.148) Believing that the Earth rotates on its axis, planets revolve around the Sun, and planetary orbits were elliptical due to the force of gravity was then thought of as inconceivable. (Morphet, p.4) Copernicus was passionately criticized by colleagues and peers for his enthusiasm of the ancient philosophers, who were viewed as incorrect. (Adamczewski, p.141) The only point that Copernicus was trying to makes was that there does not exist any comm on center for all the celestial orbs or spheres; the center of the Earth is not the center of the universe; but only the center of gravity and the center of the Moons path; all the planets revolve around the Sun, which is the center. (Adamczewski, p.115)As a result of the bad reaction towards Copernicus views, he hesitated from publishing his famous book De Revolutionibus. Copernicus claims that apprehension of the derision which I had to fear because of the hard-to- understand novelty of my theory. (Adamczewski, p.144) Prior to the March 21, 1543 publication of De Revolutionibus, a falsifier of Copernicus work, Andreas Osiander, added his own foreword to the book saying that it was a fictitious scheme for calculations, just an hypothesis. Analysis of The Age of Anxiety by W.H. Auden EssayIn 1610, Galileo published his discoveries in a book called Starry Messenger. One of his discoveries being that of Jupiter having four Moons! Wow. It was translated and sold all over the world. By the end of that year, he had discovered that Jupiter also had rings, but most importantly he discovered that the Sun was the center of the solar system because the sunlight on the other planets move across like here on Earth. He now had the proof to defend the Copernican heliocentric theory, but would people believe him?After the 1613 of another book called Letters on Sunspots, Pope Paul found Galileos book a threat to the Catholic Church. In 1616, The Pope denounced the Copernican theory, surprising Galileo. During 1626, a group formed and plotted to ruin Galileo. They felt that faith was more important than the truth of the universe. The asked Galileo to renounce his belief in heliocentrism and his discoveries because the Bible spoke not hing of his discoveries therefore they thought them false. Despite the evidence Galileo now had to prove the validity of the heliocentric theory, the Church ordered Galileo to speak of heliocentrism only as an hypothesis even though it was true. Galileos third book, Dialogue on the Two Great Systems of the World, was about the Church and science. Although it was very popular the Pope banned it feeling it was wrong and insulting. The Church now saw his book as heresy and ordered Galileo to appear before the Holy Office of the Inquisition. Now 68 years old and failing in health, Galileo publicly recanted and admitted his crimes in order to save his life. He was not able to escape the wrath of the Inquisition and was confined to his home for the rest of his life. Seeing that the Inquisition gave harsher punishments than that, Galileo was glad to receive a light conviction. Galileo lived to be 78 years old, and died in 1642 due to sickness causing his to be bedridden his last three years. Through Galileos experiments and discoveries he was able to confirm Copernicus theories, further developed observational astronomy, and with Kepler, prepared the groundwork for Isaac Newtons discovery of the Law of Universal Gravitation. (Adamc zewski, p.158) Bibliography:BibliographyPrimaryNorth, John. The Norton History of Astronomy ans Cosmology. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1995. Information on the history of astronomy, cosmology, and the important figures who helped to further develop science. Quotes andinformation were used in my report. Adamczewski, Jan. Nicolaus Copernicus and His Epoch. Washington DC: Copernicus Society of America, 197-. A biography on Nicolaus Copernicus. Information on Copernicus and quotes were used in my report. Morphet, Clive. Galileo and Copernican Astronomy: A scientific world view defined. Boston: Buttherworths, 1977. The influence of Copernicus and Galileo in the history of science. Information and quotes on these two figures were used in my report. Silverburg, Robert. Four Men Who Changed the Universe. New York: G.P. Putnams Sons, 1968. Information on four figures who changed science: Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Brahe. Quotes and facts on all four of thesemen were used in my report. Copernican System. Passages from De Revolutionibus. http://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/Things/copernican_system.htmlWebsite containing information on Galileo, and other science-relatedthings involving Galileo. A picture of Copernicus heliocentric theorywas used to help with the background information to my report. SecondarySis, Peter. Starry Messenger. New York: Frances Foster Books, 1996. A pictorial biography of Galileo Galilei. Information on his life was used for background information to my report. Yamasaki, Mitch. The Scientific Revolution in Pre-Modern Europe. Honolulu, Hawaii: National History Day, 1998. An essay on the Scientific Revolution sparked by the introduction ofheliocentrism. Information on Copernicus and his influences wereused for background information. Galileo, Microsoft(R) Encarta(R) 96 Encyclopedia. (c)1993-1995 MicrosoftCorp. This CD-ROM contained photos and information on Galileo Galilei. Facts on Galileo were used for background information in my report. Johannes Kepler, Microsoft(R) Encarta(R) 98 Encyclopedia. (c)1993-1997Microsoft Corp. This CD-ROM article contained general information on Kepler. Factson his impact in science were used in my research. People Who Have Influenced Our Ideas of the Solar System. http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/psc/theman.htmlThis website contained information on key figures in the developmentof astronomy. Information on scientists was used in my research.